Hanbok vs Hanfu: Chinese Cultural Appropriation Stirs Outrage in South Korea

The controversy on the origin of ‘hanbok’ first came about in April 2021, when Chinese mobile game “Call me an Emperor” dressed a female character in a hanbok dress that was worn by Korean singer-songwriter and actress IU in the drama series “Moon Lovers.” Hanbok is a traditional Korean clothing worn daily up until about a century ago; however, it continues to hold a significant place in Korean culture, with people wearing it on special occasions and holidays to this day. Last year, China began to claim that the “hanbok” was in fact a part of the Chinese culture that originated from the Ming Dynasty as “hanfu” — traditional styles of clothing worn by the Han Chinese. The dispute fuelled further when the Chinese gaming firm Paper Games’ Shining Nikki featured clothing items that resembled hanbok in the game and eventually shut down its Korean server in November, just two months after the dispute erupted over hanbok. In the whirlpool of hostile encounters between Chinese and Korean netizens, a Chinese actor named Xu Kai posted a selfie on Weibo (a twitter-like platform in China) that showed him wearing a traditional costume that resembles Korean hanbok for a TV series set in China during the Ming dynasty. With the matter still lingering between the South Korea-China relations, the opening ceremony of Beijing Olympics 2022 sparked greater anti-Chinese sentiment amongst Koreans, with the ceremony introducing a woman wearing the Korean traditional dress, ‘hanbok’ , as a member of China’s ethnic minorities.

Unfortunately, this is not the first cultural spat that has emerged between the two nations in recent years. Prior to the hanbok issue, China asserted that they had “led” the development of an international standard for paocai, or pickled vegetables, which includes kimchi — the unique and traditional ethnic food of Korea that has been around for thousands of years. The contention surfaced when China plagiarized the fermentation process of Kimchi when reporting its paocai from Sichuan to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). “Although the I.S.O declared that its definition “does not apply to kimchi,” fiercely nationalistic press company Global Times explained how China had set an “industry benchmark” for the “international paocai market.” Essentially, this term included kimchi as part of its definition. “It is inappropriate to report (pao cai winning the ISO) without differentiating between kimchi from paocai from Sichuan,” the ministry of agriculture in South Korea added regarding this controversy. 

Concerning this argument, the UN agreed that kimchi is South Korean, with UNESCO adding kimjang – the communal act of making kimchi – to its intangible cultural heritage list in 2013. The organization further stated that kimjang “forms an essential part of Korean meals, transcending class and regional differences. The collective practice of kimjang reaffirms Korean identity and is an excellent opportunity for strengthening family cooperation.”

Like K-pop, kimchi has benefitted from the Hallyu wave of interest in Korean culture. Seo Kyoung-duk, a professor at Sungshin Women’s university in Seoul, told the Yonhap news agency: “With South Korean cultural content expanding its influence on a global scale, it seems that China is making efforts to claim that such content was traced to them.” Despite multiple scholars and international bodies reaffirming that kimchi is indeed a part of Korean culture, Chinese internet users have stated that they have every right to claim the dish as their own, since so much of the kimchi consumed in South Korea comes from China. They have further aggravated the Koreans when a famous youtuber from China, Li Ziqi posted a video in which she prepared “pickled vegetables” recognizable as Kimchi, and utilized an almost identical process of making kimchi tagging it with #ChineseCuisine and #ChineseFood. The dispute over kimchi has fiercely built on the animosity between the two nations over cultural relations and remains unresolved. 

The discourse of hanbok greatly resembles that of kimchi and paocai. During the cultural exchange era of Joseon, hanbok learned and borrowed various features of Ming Dynasty costumes. However, it gradually developed a style of its own and arguing in our contemporary society, it is hardly to be claimed that hanfu and hanbok are the same. Hanbok’s idiosyncratic characters are now retained as a glorious cultural heritage of Korea, which is not only important for its historical value and the preservation of Korean traditional clothes, but also its uniquely Korean artistic significance .

Hanbok vs. Hanfu

The most obvious difference between Hanbok and Hanfu is the length of the top. Korean Hanbok’s top is clearly much shorter than Chinese Hanfu. What’s more, in Hanfu, the dress is attached to the upper outer garment and Hanbok has its upper outer garment on the outside, covering the shirt. Moreover, the dress of the Korean Hanbok is in a conical shape like the modern bubble skirt, whereas the traditional Chinese dresses are straight down without changing in shapes since “being upright” is the most important message that the ancestors of China tried to deliver through designing clothes. Additionally, Korean Hanbok is often characterized by vibrant colours and simple lines without pockets, the various hues of the colours symbolizing one’s social position and marital status. Meanwhile, the majority of the Chinese Hanfu are of cold hues (e.g. blue or green) due to its tradition that teaches them to be humble. The collar shapes of each traditional dress also portray explicit differences; the collar of Hanfu is generally Y-shaped, while Hanbok usually features a V-neck, with a wide tie (bow). 

The goal of the Olympic games is “to place sport at the service of the harmonious development of humankind, with a view to promoting a peaceful society concerned with the preservation of human dignity.” Regrettably, in contrast to the organizing principles of the Olympics, this year’s games heightened political and cultural tensions among certain nations. As the hostile relations between South Korea and China continued, the opening ceremony of the Beijing  Olympics 2022 has caused further flash points. During the event, one of the performers appeared on stage wearing a traditional Korean dress made up of a white jeogori top and pink chima skirt, which together make up the Korean hanbok attire. The woman joined other performers in carrying a large Chinese flag, setting off a firestorm of criticism on South Korean social media and conventional media. So far, the South Korean government has been taking a wait-and-see approach over the hanbok controversy. But China has reacted through this year’s Olympics, firmly refuting the criticism from South Korea. The Chinese embassy in Seoul said in a statement written in Korean that “China’s Korean ethnic group has the same bloodline as the South and North on the Korean Peninsula, and it inherited the same traditional culture including clothing.” 

There are approximately two million Korean-Chinese, known as “Joseon-jok” living in China near the China-North Korea border. They are ethnic Koreans who migrated to China during the Japanese occupation of Korea and have resided there since. These ethnic Koreans were among those being represented as one of China’s many ethnic groups. However, the major issue aligned with the use of the hanbok as China’s attempts to assert that various aspects of Korean culture are of Chinese origin. It is unreasonable to utilize Joseon-jokes as a means of cultural appropriation when its history is much more complicated than just “Chinese people holding Korean culture”.

This incident, following a series of similar precedents, was interpreted as yet another move by China to appropriate an integral part of Korean culture and identity. An editorial written by the Seoul Shinmun newspaper called the appearance of the hanbok “clearly cultural appropriation.” Hankyoreh newspaper also touched on China’s attempts to assert historical claims in the Korean peninsula stating that “we need to continue developing neighbourly relations with China, but we also need to be willing to stand up against attempts to distort history.” Hosting the Olympic Games is an exceptional opportunity for the country to showcase its own cultures and national pride. However, the nation should be cautious when doing so to avoid causing any type of discontent from other participating countries, as the IOC emphasizes that the Olympic Games are “not about politics.” The country should recognize that the Olympic Games are governed by the IOC, not by the governments. Regardless of what the motives behind this decision were, to include a source of ongoing dispute in its opening ceremony can be deemed as a lack of respect and understanding for South Korea and its people. 

As a growing great power in the international system, China has begun to rival the United States as a global hegemon. However, one sector that is hindering them from outrunning America is their lack of soft power (non-coercive act to shape the preferences of others; the currency of soft power includes culture, political values, and foreign policies). Although China has a beautiful and appreciable culture, this hasn’t attracted significant international attention in recent years. This might be alarming to the Chinese government as the current period of growth might be seen as a critical period for promoting its culture to the world.

Meanwhile, South Korea has been the centre of recognition in recent years, particularly in the entertainment industry which constantly promotes Korean culture and tradition through its movies, TV shows, and K-Pop. The increasing universal popularity of Korean cultures can appear to China as threatening. As such, the influence of its neighbour cannot be overlooked.

Ultimately, cultural appropriation should not be performed in any way, especially through nationalistic overreach. Korea, Japan, and China all have influenced and have been influenced by each other due to their geographical proximity and historical interchange not only culturally , but also in customs, ways of life, material goods and more. To argue that the origin of a country’s cultural artifacts and norms is certainly an unnecessary dispute to be held, as every part of each nation’s culture and traditions have been modified and adjusted over the time. In fact, it is the process of consolidation and the current status of each culture and tradition that matters in our modern society.

The two nations, South Korea and China, should instead shift their focus towards building friendly diplomatic relations as neighbouring countries. China is one of the major trading partners of South Korea, and China also needs more amiable relations within the region in order to extend its influence as a great power. The type of diplomacy China has been employing in South Korea only intensified the anti-Chinese sentiment among the Koreans, which can further solidify negative impressions of China internationally. Consequently, the two countries are racing towards a lose-lose destination and not one nation will be able to benefit from this cultural spat. In the era of sprouting globalization, it is crucial for all countries to recognize the ownership of each country’s unique culture and traditions to maintain peace, mutual respect, and prosperity of the international world. 

Hailey Lee

Hailey Lee is in her second year at McGill University, currently pursuing a degree in Political Science with a minor in Economics and Communication Studies.  As this year’s Staff Writer for Catalyst, Hailey desires to spread awareness and inform the audience on political and human rights issues particularly occurring in the Asia Pacific.